Low-Power Folded Tree Architecture for DSP Applications

Low-Power Folded Tree Architecture for DSP Applications Low-Power Folded Tree Architecture for DSP applications Abstract— Wireless communication exhibits the highest energy consumption in wireless sensor network (WSN) nodes. Due to their limited energy supply from batteries, the low power design have become inevitable part of today’s wireless devices. Power has become a burning issue in VLSI design. In modern integrated circuits, the power consumed by clocking gradually takes a dominant part. Reducing the power consumption not only enhance battery life but also avoid overheating problem. By employing a more appropriate Processing Element (PE), the power consumption is significantly reduced. In this paper the novel method for low power design is achieved by using Folded Tree Architecture (FTA) and high speed adder design for on-the-node data processing in wireless sensor networks using Parallel Prefix Operations (PPO) and data locality in hardware. Besides power reduction the objective of minimizing area and delay is also considered. Index Terms— Folded Tree Architecture (FTA), Parallel Prefix Operation (PPO), Processing Element (PE), Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). INTRODUCTION Power optimization is always one of the most important design objectives in modern nanometer integrated circuit design. Especially for wireless sensor networks (WSNs), power optimization have become inevitable part in today VLSI design. Power optimization not only can enhance battery life but also reduce the overheating problem. Self-configuring wireless sensor networks can be invaluable in many civil and military applications for collecting, processing, and disseminating wide ranges of complex environmental data. Because of this, they have attracted considerable research attention in last years. Sensor nodes are battery driven and hence operate on an extremely frugal energy budget. Further, they must have a lifetime on the order of months to years. Since battery replacement is not an option for networks with thousands of physically embedded nodes. In some cases, these networks may be required to operate solely on energy scavenged from the environment through seismic, photovoltaic or thermal conversion. This transforms energy consumption into the most important factor that determines sensor node lifetime. The another important application in wireless sensor networks is event tracking, which has widespread use in applications such as security surveillance and wildlife habitat monitoring. Tracking involves a significant amount of collaboration between individual sensors to perform complex signal processing algorithms such as kalman filtering, Bayesian data fusion and coherent beamforming. This applications will require more energy for their processing. In general Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can operate in four distinct mode of operation: Transmit, Receive, Idle and Sleep. An important observation in the case of most radios is that operating in Idle mode results in significantly high power consumption, almost equal to the power consumed in the Receive mode. The data-driven nature of WSN applications requires a specific low power data processing approach. By employing more appropriate Processing Element (PE), the power consumption in all the four mode of operation will be reduced significantly. In present VLSI technology, reducing power consumption is an important issue. Especially for WSN, due to their limited battery lifetime the low power VLSI design is become inevitable for wireless commmunication. The goal of this paper is to design an low-energy Folded Tree and Multi-Bit Flip-Flop Merging technique for WSN nodes. II. RELATED WORKS In paper [2], the author proposed low-energy data processing architecture for WSN nodes using folded tree method. This paper identifies that many WSN applications employ algorithms which can be solved by using parallel prefix-sums. Therefore, an alternative architecture is proposed to calculated them energy-efficiently. It consists of several parallel Processing Elements (PEs) structured as a folded tree. The folded tree method with parallel prefix operations reduces the number of processing element and memory bottleneck. Due to clock distribution for more flip-flops, it consumes more clock power and also parallel prefix operations has high delay. In paper [3], a novel method is proposed for low clock power consumption in WSN nodes. A previously derived clock energy model is briefly reviewed while a comprehensive framework for the estimation of system wide (chip level) and clock sub-system power as function of technology scaling is presented. This framework is used to study and quantify the impact that various intensifying concerns associated with scaling will have on clock energy and their relative impact on the overall system energy. This technology scaling method reduces power clock power consumption (both static and dynamic), but due to large number of processing element- area, inverter chain, Power-Delay Product is increased. III. PROPOSED SCHEME Folded Tree Architecture with Parallel Prefix Operation is used to reduce the total number of Processing Elements (PEs) in the VLSI design. By reducing the number of processing elements, the total area is reduced. Area is proportional to power, so power consumption is also reduced. During processing and transmission of signals, the WSN nodes will consume more power. Especially for clock distribution nearly 70% power will be consumed. In order to optimize the power during clock distribution, multi-bit flip-flop merging technique is used. A. Folded Tree Architecture A straightforward binary tree implementation of Blelloch’s approach costs a significant amount of area as n inputs require p = n − 1 PEs. To reduce area and power, pipelining can be traded for throughput. With a classic binary tree, as soon as a layer of PEs finishes processing, the results are passed on and new calculations can already recommence independently [8]. Fig 1. Binary tree equivalent to folded tree The idea presented here is to fold the tree back onto itself to maximally reuse the PEs. In doing so, p becomes proportional to n/2 and the area is cut in half. Area is proportional to power, so power is also cut in half. Note that also the interconnect is reduced. This folded tree topology is depicted in Fig. 1, which is functionally equivalent to the binary tree on the left. By using the Folded Tree architecture power consumption, area and wirelength is reduced considerably. Folded Tree Architecture (FTA) for on-the-node data processing in wireless sensor networks, using parallel preà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ x operations and data locality in hardware reduces both area and power consumption. TABLE I LEAKAGE POWER AND DYNAMIC ENERGY FOR ONE PE UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS FTA is designed to reuse the PE nodes to reduces half of the total area. It limiting the data set by preprocessing with parallel preà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ x operations. The combination of data à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ow and control à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ow elements to introduce a local distributed memory, which removes the memory bottleneck while retaining sufà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ cient à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exibility. Several processing element consumes more power, so by using FTA the PE can be reused and power is reduced. Fig 2. Folding Architecture In folding architecture, we can reuse the PEs with the help of counter and FSM. Iteration count in the counter contains the total number of times the specified PE going to be reused. The FSM enables and reset the iteration count based on the instructions. B. Parallel prefix adder. Adders are also very important component in digital systems because of their extensive use in other basic digital operations such as subtraction, multiplication and division. Hence, improving performance of the digital adder would greatly advance the execution of binary operations inside a circuit compromised of such blocks. The performance of a digital circuit block is gauged by analyzing its power dissipation, layout area and its operating speed. The main idea behind parallel prefix addition is an attempt to generate all incoming carries in parallel and avoid waiting until the correct carry propagates from the stage of the adder where it has been generated.Parallel prefix adders are constructed out of fundamental carry operators denoted by  ¢ as follows (G, P)  ¢ (G, P) = (G+G ·P, P ·P) where P and P indicate the propagations, G and G indicate the generations. The fundamental carry operator is represented as Figure Fig 3. Carry operator   Ã‚   A parallel prefix adder can be represented as a parallel prefix graph consisting of carry operator nodes. The parallel prefix Ladner Fischer adder structure has minimum logic depth, but has large fan-out requirement up to n/2. Ladner Fischer adder has less number of delay compared to other parallel prefix adders. Power Delay Product should be less inorder to achieve high throughput and speed. Fig 4. Ladner Fischer Parallel Prefix Adder The Ladner Fischer adder construct a circuit that computes the prefix sums in the circuit, each node performs an addition of two numbers. With their construction, one can choose a tradeoff between the circuit depth and the number of nodes. V CONCLUSION This paper presented the Folded Tree Architecture and Multi-Bit Flip-Flop Merging technique for WSN applications. The design describes many data processing algorithms for WSN applications along with parallel prefix operations and clock distribution networks. Power is saved using flip flop merging technique by providing single clock signal to mergeable flip flops with the help of combinational lookup table. Thus this technique can be effectively used for clock distribution in integrated circuits requiring low power consumption in clock distribution network and low skew clocks. Area is reduced using folded tree architecture by reusing processing element. Ladner Fischer parallel prefix adder reduces the delay constraints and achieve high throughput. The proposed architecture significantly reduces both power and area in WSN nodes, can save up to half of the power in total sensor node. REFERENCES V. Raghunathan, C. Schurgers, S. Park, and M. B. Srivastava, â€Å"Energy-aware wireless microsensor networks,† IEEE Signal Process.Mag., vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 40–50, Mar. 2002. C. Walravens and W. Dehaene, â€Å"Design of a low-energy data processing architecture for wsn nodes,† in Proc. Design, Automat. Test Eur. Conf. Exhibit., Mar. 2012, pp. 570–573. D. Duarte, V. Narayanan, and M. J. Irwin, â€Å"Impact of technology scaling in the clock power,† in Proc. IEEE VLSI Comput. Soc. Annu. Symp.,Pittsburgh, PA, Apr. 2002, pp. 52–57. H. Kawagachi and T. Sakurai, â€Å"A reduced clock-swing flip-flop (RCSFF)for 63% clock power reduction,† in VLSI Circuits Dig. Tech. Papers Symp., Jun. 1997, pp. 97–98. Y. Cheon, P.-H. Ho, A. B. Kahng, S. Reda, and Q. Wang, â€Å"Power- aware placement,† in Proc. Design Autom. Conf., Jun. 2005, pp. 795–800. Y.-T. Chang, C.-C. Hsu, P.-H. Lin, Y.-W. Tsai, and S.-F. Chen, â€Å"Post-placement power optimization with multi-bit flip-flops,† in Proc.IEEE/ACM Comput.-Aided Design Int. Conf., San Jose, CA, Nov. 2010,pp. 218–223. P. Sanders and J. Traff, â€Å"Parallel prefix (scan) algorithms for MPI,† in proc, Recent ADV. Parallel Virtual Mach Message Pass, Interf., 2006, pp.49-57. G. Blelloch, â€Å"Scans as primitive parallel operations,† IEEE Trans. Comput.,Vol.38, no 11, pp. 1526-1538, Nov. 1989. D. B. Hoang, N. Kamyabpour â€Å"An Energy Driven Architecture for Wireless Sensor Networks† International Conference on parallel and Distributed computing Applications and technologies., Dec 2012. Nazhandali, M. Minuth, and T. Austin, â€Å"SensBench:Toward an accurate evaluation of sensor network processors,†in Proc. IEEE Workload Characterizat. Symp., Oct. 2005. M. Hempstead, D. Brooks, and G. Wei,† An accelerator-based wireless sensor network processor in 130 nm cmos,† J, Emerg. Select. Topics Circuits Syst., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 193-202, 2011. B. A. Warneke and K. S. J. Pister, â€Å"An ultra-low energy micro- controller for smart dust wireless sensor networks,† in Proc. IEEE Int.Solid-state circuits conf. Dig. Tech. Papers. Feb. 2004, pp. 316-317. M. Hempstead, M. Welsh, and D.Brooks,†Tinybench: The case for a standardized benchmark suite for TinyOS based wireless sensor network devices,† in Proc. IEEE 29th Local comout. Netw, conf., Nov.2004, pp. 585-586. O. Girard. (2010). â€Å"OpenMSP430 processor core, available at opencores.org,† [online]. Available: http://opencores.org/project, openmsp430. H. Stone, â€Å"Parallel processing with the perfect shuffle,† IEEE Trans. Comput., vol. 100, no.2, pp. 153-161, Feb. 1971. M. Hempstead, J. M. Lyons, D. Brooks, and G-Y. Wei,† Survey of hardware systems for wireless sensor networks,† J. Low Power Electron., vol.4, no. 1, pp. 11-29, 2008. C.C. Yu. Design of low-power double edge-triggered flip-flop circuit. In IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, pp. 2054-2057, 2007. M. Donno, A. Ivaldi, L. Benini, and E. Macii. Clock tree power optimization based on RTL clock-gating. In Design Automation Conference, pp. 622-627, 2003.

Strategic Management at Honda Essay -- Business Management Studies

Strategic Management at Honda 1. Firstly what is strategic management? It is the process of specifying an organization’s objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve these objectives, and allocating resources so as to implement the plans. Strategic management is usually performed by the highest level of managers in the company. A company’s strategy must be realistic enough for it to achieve it; hence it must make sure it has the right resources to be able to cope with the strategy. An example of an overall business strategy may be to put the organization in a position where it can carry out its mission. Now to see how the definition of strategic management conforms to what’s been written about how Honda grew and developed its markets in the US. Firstly in the BCG account of how Honda grew into the US markets it quotes â€Å"the success of the Japanese manufactures originated with the growth of their domestic market during the 1950s.† To think strategically there are three big questions that need to be answered that are, where are we now? Where do we want to go? How will we get there? I believe the first question of thinking strategically is now answered, â€Å"where are we now† Honda must of seen that they have been successful in their own domestic market and are ready to go into other markets so at this point they must have been thinking where do they want to go next hence the second strategic question. Another quote from the BCG report, â€Å"†¦.the basic philosophy of the Japanese manufactures is the high volumes per model provide the potential for high productivity as a result of using capital intensive and highly automated techniques.† This now I believe has answered the third question of thinking strategically, â€Å"how will we get there.† Honda knew from the success of their own domestic market the key to their success was gaining economies of scale as the cost of producing motorbikes declined with the level of output. So this would be their way of entering the US markets as they also knew their competitors would have a scale economy disadvantage in technology and manufacturing. If we look at the second account of how Honda grew and developed its markets in the US we can see other ways of how its conforms with strategic management. Pascal’s version is based on interviews with the Japanese executives. They say they had no ... ...aving a formalised approach to strategy and implementations there are some disadvantages. Having a formalised strategy can mean a lot of time and thought need to be put into forming a good strategy which might mean a huge drawback in cost savings whereas this time and thought could be implemented elsewhere in the business. A formalised approach to strategy development can also mean a slow response when there is a change in the market. Developing a strategy and implementing as said before takes a long time and a lot of thought which in business means money so when there is a change in the market the strategy may not be relevant to the new situation which could consequently mean further cost occurring such as forming new strategies and responding to the new market situation. A situation like this can be learnt from Honda when they thought their larger bikes would sell as Americans liked bigger things and also they thought the Buddha like handlebar would assist in sales of these larger bikes, but when this was not the case and they learnt it was the smaller bikes (50cc) the consumers wanted they had to quickly change their main strategy and follow on with a new one.

Mutations in the Alpha 1,2-Mannosidase Gene Essay -- Scientific Resear

Introduction Intellectual disability (ID) is defined by the American Association of Intellectual Developmental Disabilities as having â€Å"significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior†. [1] Earlier it was believed that behavioral abnormalities, such as Intellectual Disability, were caused by the social or environmental environment in which the individual lived in.[2] However, with the breakthrough of the genetic analysis, it has been shown that more and more of our behavior is influenced, if not controlled, by our genes. [3]This advancement is important for our understanding of ID to expand. ID can occur when there is a mutation on one or more of the genes in the individual’s chromosome set. [3]There are different types of mutations; autosomal mutations (mutations occurring in one or more of the 44 autosomal chromosomes [in humans]), mutations in the sex chromosomes (the two chromosomes that amongst other things determine the individual’s sex), and there are also chromosomal disorders such as nondisjunction in where one of the two homologous chromosomes fails to separate from its sister chromatid during cell division, resulting in an extra chromosome in one daughter cell and one less chromosome in the other. [3] For parents that are carriers (heterozygous) of an allele that codes for an autosomal recessive trait (e.g. ID), each child they have will inherit one of the two alleles (dominant or recessive) from each parent. Following the Mendelian laws of inheritance, such parents can get offspring that are homozygous dominant (25% chance, will not result in ID), heterozygous like themselves (50% chance, will not result in ID, but will be carriers of the defective gene), or homozygous r... ...tations in the alpha 1,2-mannosidase gene, MAN1B1, cause autosomal-recessive intellectual disability. Am J Hum Genet. 2011 Jul 15;89(1):176-82. [6] Exome Sequencing [Internet]. Mountain View CA: Centrillion, 2011 [cited 2012 Feb 18]. Available from: http://www.centrillionbio.com/exome.php [7] Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR. DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 December; 74(12): 5463–5467. [8] MeSH Browser [Internet]. Stockholm: Karolinska Institutet Universitetsbiblioteket; 2008 [updated 2011; cited 2012 Feb 20]. Available from: http://mesh.kib.ki.se/swemesh/swemesh_se.cfm. Leonard H, Wen X. The epidemiology of mental retardation: Challenges and opportunities in the new millenium. Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev., 8 (2002), pp. 117–134. Corresponding author: Helen Leonard (hleonard@cyllene.uwa.edu Mutations in the Alpha 1,2-Mannosidase Gene Essay -- Scientific Resear Introduction Intellectual disability (ID) is defined by the American Association of Intellectual Developmental Disabilities as having â€Å"significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior†. [1] Earlier it was believed that behavioral abnormalities, such as Intellectual Disability, were caused by the social or environmental environment in which the individual lived in.[2] However, with the breakthrough of the genetic analysis, it has been shown that more and more of our behavior is influenced, if not controlled, by our genes. [3]This advancement is important for our understanding of ID to expand. ID can occur when there is a mutation on one or more of the genes in the individual’s chromosome set. [3]There are different types of mutations; autosomal mutations (mutations occurring in one or more of the 44 autosomal chromosomes [in humans]), mutations in the sex chromosomes (the two chromosomes that amongst other things determine the individual’s sex), and there are also chromosomal disorders such as nondisjunction in where one of the two homologous chromosomes fails to separate from its sister chromatid during cell division, resulting in an extra chromosome in one daughter cell and one less chromosome in the other. [3] For parents that are carriers (heterozygous) of an allele that codes for an autosomal recessive trait (e.g. ID), each child they have will inherit one of the two alleles (dominant or recessive) from each parent. Following the Mendelian laws of inheritance, such parents can get offspring that are homozygous dominant (25% chance, will not result in ID), heterozygous like themselves (50% chance, will not result in ID, but will be carriers of the defective gene), or homozygous r... ...tations in the alpha 1,2-mannosidase gene, MAN1B1, cause autosomal-recessive intellectual disability. Am J Hum Genet. 2011 Jul 15;89(1):176-82. [6] Exome Sequencing [Internet]. Mountain View CA: Centrillion, 2011 [cited 2012 Feb 18]. Available from: http://www.centrillionbio.com/exome.php [7] Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR. DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 December; 74(12): 5463–5467. [8] MeSH Browser [Internet]. Stockholm: Karolinska Institutet Universitetsbiblioteket; 2008 [updated 2011; cited 2012 Feb 20]. Available from: http://mesh.kib.ki.se/swemesh/swemesh_se.cfm. Leonard H, Wen X. The epidemiology of mental retardation: Challenges and opportunities in the new millenium. Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev., 8 (2002), pp. 117–134. Corresponding author: Helen Leonard (hleonard@cyllene.uwa.edu

Animal Farm: Depicts the Views of Communist Society

Animal Farm The views of communism are not very common today simply because of how impractical they are. The human nature to create hierarchy is a direct contradiction to the views of communist society. Animal Farm is George Orwell’s comment on communism in the form of a satire where the animals on a farm rebel against the farmer and seize control. From the first stirring of rebellion, there are resolutions to keep all animals equal.However, the farm soon went from a utopia to something far from perfect as the pigs slowly take reigned over the other animals. The pigs completely corrupt Old Major’s vision of Animalism by taking special privileges, changing the commandments, and exploiting the animals. At the start of Manor Farm’s transition to animal farm, the pigs rewrite Old Major’s idea of Animalism and Squealer is forced to change the Commandments to fit new circumstances. The first alteration to the Commandments comes after the pigs move into the Mr.Jo nes’ farmhouse. A few animals remember something in the commandment specifically on beds, but cannot muster much because of their inferior intelligence. The ban on sleeping in beds is changed in Napoleon's favor by the addition of the words â€Å"with sheets† to the fourth commandment (â€Å"No animal shall sleep in a bed†. These suspicions are further forgotten as Squealer assures the other animals that the pigs sleep in beds with blankets, and have gotten rid of the sheets.In addition, the pigs start to drink alcohol. When Napoleon gets drunk, many animals are alarmed and shocked, but all that ultimately happens is that the words â€Å"to excess† are added to the fifth commandment (No animal shall drink alcohol). It is evident that Old Major’s speech was in vain as the pigs ignore the old pig’s warnings and start to attain human traits. There is no subtle change to the third or first Commandments about wearing clothes and walking on two le gs.This is because by the time the pigs start to put on clothes and walk on two legs, they are so powerful that it is unnecessary. Instead, all of the â€Å"unalterable laws† are abandoned and Old Major’s inspiring commandments are replaced by the slogan- â€Å"All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others. † The pigs’ changes to the original views of Animalism causes them to take control and essentially put the farm back into its previous condition before the rebellion.The sole difference was the control of Farmer Jones, and that of â€Å"our Leader, Comrade Napoleon†. George Orwell uses Anima Farm to portray the pitfall of a totalitarian society. Orwell shows his opposition by creating a novel with animals representing different people in the world. The author’s message is a warning of what comes with communistic governments and dictatorships. The pigs and animals on the farm are simply an allusion to the communist societies i n the world today.

An Insight Look of Critical Employability Skills Essay

Introduction With a faster pace of everyday life, employability skills are becoming essential in modern society. The employability essential concepts and skill sets represent universal content. They contribute to outcomes that are valued for individuals and for society; bring benefits in a wide variety of contexts and apply to multiple areas of life; and are of use to all individuals, deemphasizing competencies of use only in a specific trade, occupation or walk of life. In this report, we look deeply into six critical employability skills including communicating skills, management skills, problem solving skills, personal knowledge, work experience and teamwork skills. Each of these skills was studied and analysed to show its importance. All of these employability skills are held to make a focus on an individual’s ability to gain initial employment, maintain employment, move between roles within the same organisation, obtain new employment if required and ideally secure suitable and sufficiently fulfilling work, in other words- their employability, more important than the simple state of being employed. (Hillage and Pollard, 1998) 1.1 Methodology Six critical employability skills were identified from sources of newspaper advertisings, TV advertisings and Internet advertisings. Each of these skills was studied according to their content and importance. Resources from Internet sites and books were used to study these skills. JCU’s graduate attributes were also introduced to compare with the employability skills to discuss the matter. Critical Employability Skills Six critical employability skills has been identified from a variety of sources, these include communicating skills, management skills, problem solving skills, personal knowledge, work experience and teamwork skills. In real world, different job roles require different employability skills. A table consist different job roles and skills were drawn according to job advertisement from variety of sources. (See Appendices) 2.1 Communication skills The definition of communication skills is â€Å"the ability to use language and express information.†(â€Å"Definition of Communication Skills,† n.d.) It is a way that uses the own language and body language to exchange information with others and understand others easily. It includes speaking, listening and writing. Hence, communication skill is a tool to run throughout business areas and it has significant impact on business. Communication skills may represent in many ways, for example, talking face to face with customers and colleagues, answering a phone call, reply E-mails and writing a report. These actions are required to be done in business workplace all day especially for Manager. As a result for Manager with good communication skills, it will not only increase the efficiency of staff, but also will create a harmonious workplace that makes everyone enjoys working. Communication skills are also critical when dealing with the customers. Good communication skills will lead to successful business, whereas poor communication will be meaningless even there is a good idea in mind. As Lee Iacocca, former president of Chrysler, once said, â€Å"You can have brilliant ideas, but if you can’t get them across, they won’t get you anywhere† (Rzadkiewicz, 2009) 2.2 Management skills â€Å"Management is about taking the right decisions at the right time and getting them implemented by the right people.† (Oak, 2011) Three key factors identified in management skills are making the right decision, at the right time and to the right people. It is the ability of a manager to run a business or a team. For instance, a good manager requires excellent analytical and organizational skills in order to make a right decision to acquire the best returns. It is highly associated with problem solving skills. These decisions also need to be made at the right time. A doctor or a pilot needs to make life saving decisions quickly and at the right time when emergences are encountered. Time management skills are essential for good managers. With good management over stuffs, it can be sure that the decision can be delivered to the right person to process. Successful business consists of good organizational management and correct decision making. Hence, a manager position requires good management skills to help company obtain profit from business. In fact, communication and management are the two essential factors that would determine the success of a business. 2.3 Problem solving skills Problem solving skill is widely required in today’s employment market. In a business analyst job advertisement(Genesis IT&T, Seek.com.au), the employer requires â€Å"a genius at problem solving†. It is highly integrated with decision making in management skills. In commercial and industrial operations, we can easily meet tons of problems. It is very hard to predict every single movement in modern business market. Therefore it is an important skill to obtain while engage problems in work process. We shall always be prepared to encounter problems, so we can find solutions to solve these problems. Problem solving skills can be either solving problems for clients or for superiors. For example, as a legal advisor you shall solve problems for your clients. This is an example of how problem solving skill directly affects the outcome of work. Good problem solving skills simply means good work. A financial adviser could solve problems for the â€Å"superior† which is the boss. His problem solving skills will affect the decision made by his superior, which influence the prefermence of the whole firm. Problem solving skills is not only about solving the problem, but also doing it efficiently. It does require not only a good knowledge over relevant matter but also good time management skills. 2.4 Personal knowledge Problem solving often requires very broad knowledge. Personal knowledge is another major skills in work place. The definition of knowledge in professional field is â€Å"familiarity or conversance, as with a particular subject or branch of learning†(Dictionary.reference.com). Knowledge is like the foundation of employability, the major resource of knowledge is from school and college study. Knowledge is the ability to understand the truth of a certain object. With knowledge, people can get a clear vision of what their roles are in the team, and the way to do their own job and cooperate with their colleagues. Like the job advertisement for architect(Bespoke, Seek.com.au), the employer need someone with landscape knowledge to take this job. Knowledge can be variables of forms and almost every occupation requires certain knowledge, engineer, pilot, truck driver or carpenter. The way to gain knowledge is through study, no matter from school studying or self-studying. From â€Å"The ability to understand and follow instructions as well as learn, maintain and apply skills and knowledge are all very important aspects of work†(Australian Govt, 2010), we can conclude that applying knowledge is the core of doing a job. And the knowledge you own determines your employability. Without knowledge, no one can even get a single job done because you will not understand the job goal and do not know the procedures to do the job. Such as a miner, who will need to have the knowledge of different kinds of ores, also he will need to own the knowledge to operate mining machines to gain efficiency. 2.5 Work experience Work experience can be seen as a form of knowledge, it is also an important employability skill required by both employers and employees in business organizations. The definition of work experience is a period of time working in business and has some knowledge or skills of the world of work. (What is work experience, n.d.) It is important because employers are looking for some candidates who have the knowledge over the working environment. Work experience also covers other different kinds of skills like team working, communication skills and problem-solving skills. A candidate who has work experience may find it easier than the other candidates to get a dream job because they had faced some of the events in job in other workplace before. More work experience will show more calm and confidence in handing things. Moreover, candidates with full knowledge and skills is choosing the dream work by own rather than being chose by employers. 2.6 Teamwork Skills Teamwork is a term that means a group of people, but each one do the individual part to perform a joint action and in order to achieve the same goal. (Teamwork in classroom, n.d.) Teamwork is one of the most important relationships in workplace. The best team number of a determine goal team is 6 ~ 10 people. The working steps are one team leader dividing the big job into different part of small work, each member choose one interested and suitable part to finish. After that, collect all the information from every member and compose to a final work to achieve the goal. Working in a team is more effective than working individually because different people possess different ideas and opinions, the information collected and researched will be more diversified. Teamwork is often required in large business organizations, it could express the character of team members and how they cooperate to produce the work instead of working individually. Modern corporations require job to be done more efficiently and effectively, this makes teams a great role to attempt big assignments, which makes teamwork skills essential. 2.7 Compare with JCU attributes By comparing the employability skills with the JCU attributes, we could possibly find a certain level of similarity between them. The definitions of two of the main characteristics of graduate skills such as literacy, self-reliance and interpersonal understand are equivalent to the meanings of employability skills. The definition of teamwork is not only similar to self-reliance and interpersonal understanding, but also connects with it. They are same as leading, managing and contributing effectively to team and working with another people in a group. However, the employability skill of work experience seems different with the JCU’s graduate attribute. Actually, work experience covers a large number of skills, such as information literacy, interpersonal understanding, critical thinking and problem solving. Work experience will display all knowledge and skills what a candidate has had before. Conclusion In this report, we have discussed six critical employability skills. We can see that these skills are highly integrated and associated with each other. One skill may often require other skills to achieve better result. These skills determine how good a person can perform not only at work but also in everyday life. In order to achieve a good job or even a good career, one shall try to gain these skills. By comparing these skills to JCU graduate attributes, we can easily see many similarities between these two. These skills are more comprehensive and necessary for student facing the real world. It can be seen as a general criterion for job candidates. References Australian Government, 8 September, 2010, Learning and Applying Knowledge, viewed in 18 May 2012, from http://jobaccess.gov.au/ADVICE/JOBREQUIREMENT/Pages/Learning_and_applying_kno.aspx Bespoke, 21 May 2012, All rounder Project Architect with Landscape knowledge, viewd 21 May2012 from http://www.seek.com.au/Job/great-opportunity-for-architect-with-landscape-knowledge/in/sydney-cbd-inner-west-eastern-suburbs/22340206 Definition Of Communication Skills. (n.d.). COMMUNICATION SKILLS, Retrieved 28 April, 2012 from http://www.communicationskills.co.in/definition-of-communication-skills.html Dictionary.reference.com, the Definition of Knowledge, viewed in 19 May 2012, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/knowledge Genesis IT&T P/L, 18 May 2012, Business Analyst-Problem solving expert, Seek.com.au.What is work experience (n.d.) Business Link, Retrieved 22 May 2012, form http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/detail?itemId=1096811532&type=RESOURCES Hillage, J. and Pollard, E., 1998, Employability: Developing a framework for policy analysis, Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) Research report. no RR85 (London, DfEE), Accessed May 22, 2012 from http://www.employment-studies.co.uk/pubs/summary.php?id=emplblty Oak, M. (2011). Basic Business Management Skills, Retrieved 30 April 2012 from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/basic-business-management-skills.html Rzadkiewicz, C. (2009). Business Communication Skills, Retrieved 28 April 2012 from http://carol-rzadkiewicz.suite101.com/business-communication-skills-a158048 Teamwork in classroom (n.d.) NDT Resource Centre, Retrieved May 22, 2012, from http://www.ndt-ed.org/TeachingResources/ClassroomTips/Teamwork.html

Startres

At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e. m. f. in the armature. Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will draw a heavy current (la = WRa) because of small armature resistance. As an example, 5 H. P. , 220 V shunt motor has a full-load current of 20 A and an armature resistance of about 0. 5 0. If this motor is directly switched on to supply, it would take an armature current of 220/0. 5 = 440 A which is 22 times the full-load current.This high starting current may result in: (i) burning of armature due to excessive heating ffect, damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking, (iii) excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected. The result is that the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be impaired and in particular cases, they may refuse to work. In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as starting resistance) is inserted in series w ith the armature circuit.This resistance is gradually reduced as the motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is cut out completely when the motor has ttained full speed. The value of starting resistance is generally such that starting current is limited to 1. 25 to 2 times the full-load current. 5. 8 Types of D. C. Motor Starters The stalling operation of a d. c. motor consists in the insertion of external resistance into the armature circuit to limit the starting current taken by the motor and the removal of this resistance in steps as the motor accelerates.When the motor attains the normal speed, this resistance is totally cut out of the armature circuit. It is very important and desirable to provide the starter with protective evices to enable the starter arm to return to OFF position (i) when the supply fails, thus preventing the armature being directly across the mains when this voltage is restored. For this purpose, we use no-volt release coil. (it) when t he motor becomes overloaded or develops a fault causing the motor to take an excessive current. For this purpose, we use overload release coil.There are two principal types of d. c. motor starters viz. , three-point starter and four- point starter. As we shall see, the two types of starters differ only in the manner in which the no-volt release coil is connected. 5. 9 Three-Point Starter This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors. Schematic diagram Fig. (5. 16) shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor with protective devices. It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A.The starter consists of starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in out to a number of studs. The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to the positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal. The other terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are connected to th e negative terminal of the supply. The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit. One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the over- load release coil.The other end of the handle moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with each stud during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting resistance as it passes over each stud in clockwise direction. Operation (i) To start with, the d. c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position. (ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, hile the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit. iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current. (‘v) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position under the pull of the spring. If no-volt release coil were not used, hen in case of failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud.If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current. (v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the novolt release coil. The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply. Fig. (5. 17) DrawbackIn a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field circuit so tha t it carries the shunt field current. While exercising speed control through field regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an extent that the no-volt release coil may not be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position. This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is overcome in the four point starter. 5. 10 Four-Point Starter In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the supply line through a protective resistance R. Fig. (5. ) shows the schematic diagram of a 4- point starter for a shunt motor (over-load release coil omitted for clarity of the figure). Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of novolt release coil. between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is the manner in which no-volt release coil is connected. However, the working of the two starters is th e same. It may be noted that the threepoint starter also provides protection against an openfield circuit. This protection is not provided by the four-point starte

Amerindians of the Caribbean

Content Topic†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 History†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 Appearance †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3-4 Entertainment †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 Housing †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5-6 Survival (farming and hunting)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6-8 Religion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 Topic: The Arawak of Guyana, their cultures, land use patterns and their effect on the landscape and biota. Introduction The Arawaks are thought to have settled at Hosororo creek on the Aruka River around 3,500 years ago. They planted manioc (manihot esculenta) which they baked into bread on ceramic griddles on the hilltops. Arawaks occupied the Corentyne River also around 2,000 years ago leaving a unique type of rock engraving, called Timehri Petroglyphs.Due to the amount of rich protein supply found along the coastal swamps, the Arawaks moved hundreds of tons of earth with wooden shovels , in order to build habitation mounds and raised fields for farming. According to Denis Williams this settlement strategy has sustained human population on coastal swamps during the European era and into the present. During the rainy season the Arawaks hunted a lot, when animals were said to migrate from lowlands in search of high ground. Animals commonly hunted were the deer, tapir, labba, wild hog, agouti, birds, parrots and turtles.They were known as food producers, also they are also known for their pottery making skills as they were the first people to bring pottery to Guyana. The Arawaks have made great contributions to Guyana culture, today many places are named by the Arawaks, most of our rivers and creeks are named by the Arawaks. The Arawak nation is deemed the most intelligent of the Amerindian nations. Fig. 1 Map of Guyana showing the location of the Arawaks History The Amerindians is said to be the first inhabitants to Guyana who entered the territory about 11,000 years ago.Amerindians initially lived on low, swampy coastland regions. The coastal plain was built up by alluvial deposits from the rising Atlantic Ocean ranging from 17,000 to 6000 years ago. The Arawak nation is said to be the second nation to arrive in Guyana after the Warraus who came before approximately 84000 years ago. It is said that a number of Arawak tribes have been extinct for several hundreds of years. What could have happened that would bring a population that once numbered 2 to 3 million down to just a few thousand by the early part of the 16th century?Throughout history the Arawak were subject to many hostile take-overs, diseases, enslavement, damage to food supplies and much more. Inevitably, by the end of the 16th century the Island Arawak had become extinct. Sadly, the Arawak Indians have been eliminated or greatly reduced in number in many areas, some of which include the Caribbean, Guadeloupe, West Indies, Barbados, and the Virgin Islands. Their numbers have been sl owly rising, so that today upwards of 30, 000 Arawak currently reside in Guyana, with a very small number existing in Suriname and French Guiana. AppearanceBecause of the broad distribution of the Arawaks, little uniformity can be found in their culture or racial type. It has been found though that the language they speak distinguish them from the rest of the world. The Arawaks were well shaped, slightly built and medium height. It appeared that they were physically weak in comparison with the Africans and Europeans. Their skin was â€Å"olive† which mean smooth and brown. The Arawaks were considered naturally good- looking but distorted their features by artificial means. As babies their heads were flattened at the forehead, this elongated head was considered a mark of beauty.This is thought to have been done to thicken the skull thus it could withstand heavy blows. The Arawaks had broad nose and their nostrils probably flared wide. Their hair was straight and black but coar se and was usually worn long. Figure 2: showing an Arawak family The Arawak men painted their bodies with bright colored dyes with clay and fat mixed all over smearing patterns all over their bodies: â€Å"some of them †¦ with black, others white and others red, most of them on their bodies and some on their faces, and eyes or only the nose†.The favorite paint was Roucou a red dye, besides being colorful, the clay and grease kept insects and rain off. The Arawaks also had body piercings and wore ornaments made from clay, shell and cotton. A plate of gold and copper alloy called the guanin was worn by chiefs who also dressed in gold crowns and feather headdresses. Sometimes the Arawaks had gold in their noses as plugs or hanging ornaments. The Arawaks saw gold as nothing more than a form of decoration. The women wore simple bead aprons and necklaces. A number of small amulets (Fig. ) or charms were carried in sacks around the neck, foot and wrist. Others made from cotton; shell and clay were woven into hair. Figure 3: showing amulets worn or carried by the Arawaks Entertainment The Arawaks had ample leisure time and many festivals marked by the Arawak year, some religious and some not so. For example the naming of a baby was time to rejoicing of the Arawaks that a child without a name will meet with great misfortune. The wedding of a cacique and the inauguration of a new cacique were times of festivity.Arawaks are fond of sports, although not competitive like us. The favorite sport called batos was a ball game with the cross between volleyball and football. The game was played with a hard rubber ball. The main aim of the game was to keep the ball in the air using only the thighs and never touching the hands or feet. The most well-known of the Arawaks' pleasure was that of smoking. The Arawaks called the tobacco plant cohiba and the pipe for smoking the leaves, tabaco. The Arawaks liked tobacco for peace and contentment, and for helping them to medit ate.They made cigars and smoked it in a pipe which they enjoyed very much. Fig. 4: showing Arawak harvesting and smoking tobacco Housing All the Arawaks needed were a shelter to keep off rain. Arawak houses were rectangular with steep thatched roofs. The larger ones had a covered porch before the door. The construction of these houses is rather simple. Wooden posts were put into the ground in a circle and canes were woven between them and tied with creepers. The roof was thatched in a conical shape and a hole was left at the top to allow smoke to escape.There were no windows and only an opening was left for a door and the houses were thoroughly built and could withstand hurricanes. The tasks of building houses were done by the men. Fig. 5: showing the house of an Arawak Survival (farming and hunting) The Arawaks were subsistence farmers, growing food mainly for their own needs and with a little left over for trade. Some crops are shown in fig. . They cut down trees to make room for planting and used the â€Å"slash-and-burn† method of farming. This is a simple method where the land was burnt to clear it of weeds and bush.The ash produced was mixed with fish and urine to produce fertilizer to help prolong the productiveness of the land. Crops were then planted in the ashes among the blackened tree stumps. These primitive farmers did not practice crop rotation, after about five to ten years, the soil would become exhausted, and the village would proceed to clear fresh land, however, slash and burn is no longer used. Instead, shifting cultivation is their new form of farming. Women did the planting and were responsible for the preparation of food.The crop cassava (also known manioc), slips were cut from the stem and planted in mounds on the level earth. Cassava was planted twice a year when the soil was damp. The Arawaks ate a variety of other fruits and vegetables including pineapples, star apples, guavas and cashews. The Arawaks did not touch mammy apple s as they believed that it was food for the dead. Arawaks did not rely on field crops for all their food. Due to living on the coast oceans and rivers were rich in foods which needed little effort to gather: shellfish, turtle eggs, snails and gull.Huge piles of shells have been found among the remains of camp sites. Arawaks trapped many small animals including bots, lizards, snakes, iguanas and agouties. The only domestic animal known to Arawaks was a small dog. Fig. 6: Showing some crops grown by Arawak As mentioned, the women were also responsible for all food preparations. The main food of the Arawaks was cassava, which required special preparation since it was poisonous in its natural state. First, the root was grated on a board covered small pebbles or rough coral until it formed a paste. Fig. 4 is an indication of this tool.This was put into a wicker tube, one end of which was hung from a branch, while a weight was attached to the other end. This caused the tube to contract, a nd forced the poisonous liquid out through the wicker. The remaining paste was left to dry and then pounded into flour using a stone mortar and pestle. The flour was formed into flat cakes and baked on a clay griddle until they were hard and dry. In this way, the cassava flour could keep from an extended period of time. Fig. 7: showing an Arawak grind stone Seasoning played a big part in food preparation. Salt and especially pepper were the common seasonings used.In addition, a sauce called cassareep, which was made of cassava juice, salt and pepper was frequently used, especially when serving the Arawaks' simplest dish, ‘pepperpot’. Note that both cassareep and pepperpot are widely used throughout Guyana today. Pepperpot was prepared in a large clay pot. Cassava juice, with the poison extracted of course, beans, peanuts, potato and some meat were all allowed to simmer. This pot of soup was used to feed a family about three times a day and as the pot is emptied, more in gredients are added so that one can have pepperpot at any time of the day or night.The Arawaks could also make intoxicating drinks out of cassava and maize such as piwari and cassiri, but drunkenness was uncommon except on some ceremonial occasions. However, smoking tobacco was a big part of the Arawak culture. Religion The Arawaks’ religious believe was called animism and was based on a spirit world, this practice aimed at honoring the spirit god. However Hillhouse claimed that the Arawaks worshipped the universal creator, a supreme being who they called Aluberi. They also believed that the sky was the source of all things powerful and good.Certain men in society were single out to explain the mysterious and control the spirit world. They were called shamans or piaimen and were said to have supernatural powers. Arawaks believe that disease was nothing but the presence of evil spirit. These medicine men had the power possessed to drive out disease. The piaimen were versed in the knowledge of herbs to treat disease. Connected with the belief in evil spirits also was the Kanaima. The Kanaima would track down its victims for years for the sake of revenge.He was thought to be an evil spirit in the form of a man. References Some notes on the Amerindians of Guyana Then and Now. Compiled by Shebana Daniel Uncle Basil: An Arawak Biography. By Justin Greene- Roesel The Prehistoric Arawak of Guyana. By Jennifer Wishart, Walter Roth Museum The Amerindians and the Europeans. By M. N. Menezes http://www. google. ca/imgres? q=Arawaks+of+Guyana//html accessed December 10, 2012 http://www. google. gy/imgres? q=arawak+smoking+tobaccocigarettes. org/history. html accessed December 10, 2012